ANCIENT TIMES

  Indonesia did not exist as yet during the Paleocene period (70 million years BC), the Eocene period (30 million years BC), the Oligacene period (25 million years BC) and the Miocene period (12 million years BC). It is thought that Indonesia must have existed during the Pleistocene period (4 million years BC) when it was connected to the present Asian mainland. It was during this period that the Hominids made their first appearance and Java Man inhabited the part of the world now called Indonesia. Java Man, named Pithecanthropus Erectus by Eugence Dubois who found the fossils on the island of Java, must have been the first Indonesian inhabitant.

	When sea levels rose as the result of the melting ice north of Europe and the American continent, many islands emerged, including the Indonesian archipelago. It was also during this period (3000-500 BC) that Indonesia was settled by Mongoloid migrants from mainland Asia who later inter-married with the indigenous people – Vedic?
Total solar eclipse,  Java, June 11, 1983.

  Later still (from 1000 BC onwards) much miscegenation occurred with Indo- Aryan/Dravidian and Chinese/other Mongoloid migrants, the former originating from the south Asian sub-continent of India and lands further west, the latter in provenance from China and the Indo Chinese peninsula. All these diverse ethnic groups assimilated with one another to form the present day physiognomy of the different facets of Indonesia , whose tonality varies much from one region to another.

The Saka period in Indonesia witnessed the introduction of the Sanskrit language and the Pallava script by the Indian Prince Aji Saka (78 AD). The Devanagari script of the Sanskrit language was also used, as shown in ancient stone and copper inscriptions (paracasthies) which have been unearthed. The language and script were adopted and called the Kawi language and included words and phrases derived from Javanese.

  Early relations were established between countries like India, China, Persia even as far off as Rome and Greece the Indonesian island Sumatra was then named Svarna Dwipa or "the island of gold, " Java was called Java Dvipa or "the Rice island," and a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Srivijaya in South East Sumatra, these multilateral relations were not limited to religious and cultural exchanges. They developed diplomatic relations, and even covered a wide range of trade.

  The influx of new settlers from other countries continued as usual, enriching further the development of civilization in the sprawling archipelago. Peacefully and gradually the Hindu and Buddhist religions spread throughout the islands. It was adopted by all layers of the people of Java, but somewhat limited to the upper classes on the other islands.

THE PERIOD OF HINDU-BUDDHIST KINGDOMS

  Many well-organized kingdoms with a high degree of civilization were ruled by kings who had adopted the Hindu and Buddhist religion. This explains why this period in history is called the Period of Hindu-Buddhist Kingdoms. It lasted from ancient times to the 16th Century AD. Because the culture and civilization, which emanated from the Hindu and Buddhist religions, were syncretized with the anterior cultural elements, the period was also referred to as the Hindu-Buddhist Indonesian period.

  The first Buddhists arrived in Indonesia between the 1st and 2nd Centuries AD. They brought with them Buddhism in its two sects, Hinayana and Mahayana. The latter became more advanced in the 8th Century AD.

  Numerous Chinese pilgrims sailed to India through the strait of Malacca. On their way, many stopped and temporarily/permanently stayed in Indonesia to learn more about Buddhism. In 144 AD a Chinese Buddhist saint, Fa Hsien, was caught in a storm and landed in Java-Dwipa, or Java island, where he stayed for five months. The northern part of the island was then ruled by a King named Kudungga. Kutai, on the island of Borneo, was successively ruled by the kings Devawarman, Aswawarman and Mulawarman.

  When the Greek explorer and geographer, Ptolemy of Alexandria, wrote on Indonesia, he named either the island of Java or Sumatra "abadiou". His chronicles described Java as a country with a good system of government, military organization, social life, arts, sciences and advanced agriculture, navigation and astronomy. There was even mention of the "batik" printing process of cloth that the people already knew. They also made metal ware, used the metric system and printed coins.

  Chinese chronicles of 132 AD described the existence of diplomatic relations between Java-Dwipa and China.

Ink and paper had already been in use in China since the 2nd Century AD. Around 502 AD Chinese annals mentioned the existence of the Kingdom, Kanto Li in South Sumatra, presumably in the neighborhood of present-day Palembang. It was ruled by king Gautama Subhadra, and later by his son Pyrawarman of Vinyawarman who established diplomatic relations with China. Because of a spelling or pronunciation difficulty, what the Chinese called "Kanto Li" was probably Srivijaya, a mighty empire. On his way to India, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, I Tsing, visited Srivijaya in 671 AD to study the Sanskrit language. He returned 18 years later, in 689 AD Srivijaya was then the center of Buddhist learning and had many well known philosophy scholars like Sakyakirti, Dharmapala and Vajabudhi.

Raden Wijaya

  The kingdom had diplomatic relations with the south Indian kingdom of Nalanda. The Srivijaya mission built a school on its premises where Indians could learn the art of molding bronze statues and broaden their knowledge of the Buddhist philosophy. With the spread of Buddhism, Srivijaya's influence spread out to many other parts of the archipelago.

  Another known Hindu-Buddhist kingdom was Sailendra in Central Java. It was ruled by the kings of the Sailendra Dynasty. During their rule (750-850 AD) the famous Buddhist temple, Borobudur, was built. In 772 AD other Buddhist temples were also built. They include the Mendut, Kalasan and Pawon temples. All of these temples are now preserved as tourist objects near the city of Yogyakarta. The Sailendra kingdom was also known for its commercial and naval power, and its flourishing arts and culture. A guide to team singing, known as the Chandra Cha-ana, was first written in 778 AD.

  One of the Pallawa language-stone inscriptions of 732 AD mentioned the name of King Sanjaya, who was later identified as the king of Mataram, a kingdom that replaced Sailendra in Central Java.  The Prambanan temple, which was dedicated to Lord Siva, was started in 856 AD and completed in 900 AD by King Daksa. Earlier Siva temples were built in 675 AD on the Dieng mountain range, southwest of Medang Kamolan, the capital of the Mataram Kingdom.

  Meanwhile, for unknown reasons, the mighty kingdoms of Central Java disappeared from historic records and new prosperous kingdom emerged in East Java. King Balitung, who ruled between 820 and 832 AD, succeeded in uniting the Central and East Java kingdoms. The disappearance of records was presumably caused by a natural disaster or an epidemic.   At the end of the 10th Century (911-1007 AD) the powerful kingdom of Singosari emerged in East Java under King Dharmawangsa. He codified laws and translated into Javanese the "Mahabharata" epic and its basic philosophy, as exposed in the Bhisma Parva scripture. He also ordered the 12 translations of the Hindu holy book, the Bhagavat Gita.

  King Jayabaya of Kediri 1135-1157 AD wrote a book in which he foretold the downfall of Indonesia. Subsequently, so he wrote, the country would be ruled by a white race, to be followed by a yellow race. His prediction turned out to be Dutch colonial rule and the Japanese occupation of the country during World War II. However, Jayabaya also predicted that Indonesia would ultimately regain her independence. During the golden period of the Kediri Kingdom many other literary works were produced, including the Javanese version of the Mahabharata by Mpu (saint) Sedah and his brother Mpu Panuluh. This work was published in 1157.

  In West Java were the kingdoms of Tarumanagara, Kanoman, Galuh, Kuningan and Pajajaran. The latter which finally triumphed to be the sole Sunda Parahyangan power to stand on its own against the constantly encroaching Javanese kingdoms from the east.

  The Mongol emperor, Kublai Khan attempted to invade Java. His troops, however, were defeated and driven back to their ships. Majapahit was founded and grew to become a powerful empire, it conquered the kingdom of Srivijaya in South Sumatra. During this period of Majapahit many literary works were produced. Among them was "Negara Kertagama," by the famous author Prapanca (1335-1380 AD). Parts of the book described the diplomatic and economic ties between Majapahit and numerous Southeast Asian countries including Myanmar, Thailand, Tonkin, Annam, Kampuchea and even India and China. Other works in Kawi, the old Javanese language, were "Pararaton," "Arjuna Wiwaha," "Ramayana," and "Sarasa Muschaya." These works were later translated into modern European languages for educational purposes.

  At the end of the 13th Century, the Srivijaya Empire began to fall as a result of severance by its vassal states and a massive invasion by the south Indian kingdom of Chola and by the Majapahit Kingdom. In the end, Srivijaya was completely conquered, by a fleet of Chinese pirate ships, capitulating in turn after a temporary sojourn, to Majapahit with the support of King Aditiawarman of the Melayu kingdom.

The Pajajaran Kingdom never yielded to Majapahit claims of suzeranity and in an epic 14th century battle, her king with many Sundanese aristocrats died honorably in defeating a much larger invasion force commanded by Gajah Mada, the Patih (prime minister) of Majapahit, after having rejected King Hayam Wuruk’s demands that one of the Pajajaran princesses be handed over in marriage to him, a cloaked pretext for the annexation of the kingdom.   The Priangan highlands never came under Javanese overlordship until she met her noble demise when in the latter part of the sixteenth century Islamic armies from Banten and Mataram overran the West Java highlands. Most of the Pajajaran royal family members were subjected to death by the sword in the direct presence of the Sultan of Banten after refusing to convert to Islam, thus numerous Sundanese people had no another alternative but to adhere to the new faith.
	Pajajaran Kris - Damescendance:  sumberan
The island of Bali was ruled by King Airlangga, known as a wise and strong ruler. He had water-works built along the Brantas River that are still in use today. Before his death in 1409 AD he divided his kingdom into the kingdoms of Janggala and Daha or Kediri. These were to be ruled by his two sons.   Under Airlangga's rule literary works flourished. The Panji novels written during this period are still popular today. They are even taught in the art faculties of the universities in Thailand, Kampuchea and Malaysia.